10th+Grade+World+History+2

Studying world history provides important perspectives on the past and offers direction for the future. In high school you’re expanding your knowledge about the world, learning about different cultures and exploring different periods that have shaped where you sit today. **Student resources for high school world history** can help you find what you need for everyday homework and for important class projects.
 * World History 10th **


 * Some sites for learning World History: ** Student Resources for History: [|http://www.findingdulcinea.com/guides/Education/High-School-World-History.pg_0.html#0]

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IV Quarter Test Topics: Chapter 21 and 22   Content

**Month:** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; line-height: 1.5;">Europe and North America Latin America Asia Africa and the Middle East <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">The World in a New Century <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: center;">The Cold War <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: center;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">During World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union fought together as allies against the Axis powers. However, the relationship between the two nations was a tense one. Americans had long been wary of Soviet communism and concerned about Russian leader Joseph Stalin’s tyrannical, blood-thirsty rule of his own country. For their part, the Soviets resented the Americans’ decades-long refusal to treat the USSR as a legitimate part of the international community as well as their delayed entry into World War II, which resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of Russians. After the war ended, these grievances ripened into an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and enmity. Postwar Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe fueled many Americans’ fears of a Russian plan to control the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent what they perceived as American officials’ bellicose rhetoric, arms buildup and interventionist approach to international relations. In such a hostile atmosphere, no single party was entirely to blame for the Cold War; in fact, some historians believe it was inevitable.



<span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">By the time World War II ended, most American officials agreed that the best defense against the Soviet threat was a strategy called “containment.” In 1946, in his famous “Long Telegram,” the diplomat George Kennan (1904-2005) explained this policy: The Soviet Union, he wrote, was “a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with the U.S. there can be no permanent modus vivendi [agreement between parties that disagree]”; as a result, America’s only choice was the “long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.” President Harry Truman (1884-1972) agreed. “It must be the policy of the United States,” he declared before Congress in 1947, “to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation…by outside pressures.” This way of thinking would shape American foreign policy for the next four decades.

<span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">The containment strategy also provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States. In 1950, a National Security Council Report known as NSC–68 had echoed Truman’s recommendation that the country use military force to “contain” communist expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring. To that end, the report called for a four-fold increase in defense spending.



<span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">In particular, American officials encouraged the development of atomic weapons like the ones that had ended World War II. Thus began a deadly “arms race.” In 1949, the Soviets tested an atom bomb of their own. In response, President Truman announced that the United States would build an even more destructive atomic weapon: the hydrogen bomb, or “superbomb.” Stalin followed suit.

<span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">As a result, the stakes of the [|Cold War] were perilously high. The first H-bomb test, in the Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands, showed just how fearsome the nuclear age could be. It created a 25-square-mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a huge hole in the ocean floor and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan. Subsequent American and Soviet tests spewed poisonous radioactive waste into the atmosphere.

<span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">The ever-present threat of nuclear annihilation had a great impact on American domestic life as well. People built bomb shelters in their backyards. They practiced attack drills in schools and other public places. The 1950s and 1960s saw an epidemic of popular films that horrified moviegoers with depictions of nuclear devastation and mutant creatures. In these and other ways, the Cold War was a constant presence in Americans’ everyday lives.

<span style="color: #020302; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',Helvetica,sans-serif;">Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition. On October 4, 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (Russian for “traveler”), the world’s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth’s orbit. Sputnik’s launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans. In the United States, space was seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets. In addition, this demonstration of the overwhelming power of the R-7 missile–seemingly capable of delivering a nuclear warhead into U.S. air space–made gathering intelligence about Soviet military activities particularly urgent. In 1958, the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer I, designed by the U.S. Army under the direction of rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, and what came to be known as the Space Race was underway. That same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a public order creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space exploration, as well as several programs seeking to exploit the military potential of space. Still, the Soviets were one step ahead, launching the first man into space in April 1961. That May, after Alan Shepard become the first American man in space, President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) made the bold public claim that the U.S. would land a man on the moon by the end of the decade. His prediction came true on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong of NASA’s Apollo 11 mission, became the first man to set food on the moon, effectively winning the Space Race for the Americans. U.S. astronauts came to be seen as the ultimate American heroes, and earth-bound men and women seemed to enjoy living vicariously through them. Soviets, in turn, were pictured as the ultimate villains, with their massive, relentless efforts to surpass America and prove the power of the communist system.

<span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 18px; text-align: left;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> World War I

The Russian Revolution

Crises Around the World

World War II  <span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">World War I

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">World War 1 was a military conflict lasting from 1914 to 1918 which involved nearly all the biggest powers of the world. It involved two opposing alliances - the Allies and the Central Powers. The countries of the Allies included Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, United States, Japan, Rumania, Serbia, Belgium, Greece, Portugal and Montenegro. The countries of the Central Powers included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. World War 1 was triggered on 28 June 1914 by the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his pregnant wife Sophie. Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was the nephew of Emperor Franz Josef and heir to the throne of Austria and Hungary. The assassination was planned by a Serbian terrorist group, called The Black Hand and the man who shot Franz Ferdinand and his wife was a Bosnian revolutionary named Gavrilo Princip.



<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The war had many causes:

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">a) a tangle of alliances made between countries, to maintain a balance power in Europe, which brought about the scale of the conflict <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">b) the Bosnian Crisis where Austria-Hungary took over the f former Turkish province of Bosnia in 1909 angering Serbia. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">c) countries were building their military forces, arms and battleships <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">d) countries wanted to regain lost territories from previous conflicts and build empires <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">e) the Moroccan Crisis where Germans were protesting in 1911 against the French possession of Morocco <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Other names for World War 1 include 'The War to End All Wars', The War of the Nations and 'The Great War'.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In 1915, the British passenger sip Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine. In all, 1,195 passengers, including 128 Americans, lost their lives. Americans were outraged and put pressure on the U.S. government to enter the war. President Woodrow Wilson wanted a peaceful end to the war, but in 1917, when the Germans announced that their submarines would sink any ship that approached Britain, Wilson declared that America would enter the war and restore peace to Europe. The United States entered the war on April 6, 1917.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">65 million troops were mobilized during during the war, 8 million troops died and 21 million troops were wounded. 58,000 British soldiers were lost on the first day at the Battle of the Somme. Chemical weapons were first used in World War I. The chemical was mustard gas. The U.S. was in the war in actual combat for only seven and a half months during which time 116,000 were killed and 204,000 were wounded. In the Battle of Verdun in 1916, there were over a million casualties in ten months. By 1918, German citizens were striking and demonstrating against the war. The British navy blocked German ports, which meant that thousands of Germans were starving and the economy was collapsing. Then the German navy suffered a major mutiny. After German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9th, 1918, the leaders of both sides met at Compiegne, France. The peace armistice was signed on November 11th. By the end of the war four empires — the Russian, the Ottoman, the German, and the Austro-Hungarian had collapsed because of the war.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In 1919, The Treaty of Versailles officially ended the War. The Treaty required that Germany accept full responsibility for causing the war; make reparations to some Allied countries; surrender some of its territory to surrounding countries; surrender its African colonies; and limit the size of its military. The Treaty also established the League of Nations to prevent future wars. The League of Nations helped Europe rebuild and fifty-three nations joined by 1923. But the U.S. Senate refused to let the United States join the League of Nations, and as a result, President Wilson, who had established the League, suffered a nervous collapse and spent the rest of his term as an invalid. Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926, but many Germans were very resentful of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany and Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933. Italy withdrew three years later. The League of Nations was unable to stop German, Italian, and Japanese from expanding their power and taking over smaller countries. Many believe World War I never really ended, and that World War II never would have happened if not for World War I.

<span style="color: #0fc40f; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">The Great Depression

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">Herbert Hoover was president when the Great Depression began. He declared in March 1930, that the U.S. had “passed the worst” and argued that the economy would sort itself out. The worst, however, had just begun and would last until the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The causes of the Great Depression are widely debated. There was no single cause, but several things when working together made it happen. A weak banking system, over-production of goods, over spending, and bursting credit bubble were just some of the reasons. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was one of the main causes of the Great Depression. This stock market crash was the most devastating crash in the history of the United States. On “Black Tuesday,” October 29, 1929, the stock market lost $14 billion, making the loss for that week an astounding $30 billion. It took 23 years for the stock market to hit the high it was at before the crash.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">As news of the stock market crash spread, customers rushed to their banks to withdraw their money, causing disastrous “bank runs.” People who had been very wealthy lost everything they had and some committed suicide. Many companies went out of business and huge numbers of people lost their jobs. At the peak of the depression, 1 out of every 4 people were without a job. Between 1930 and 1935, nearly 750,000 farms were lost through bankruptcy or sheriff sales. People who lost their homes often lived in what were called “Hoovervilles,” or shanty towns, that were named after President Herbert Hoover. There was also “Hoover Stew” which was the name for food handed out to the poor at soup kitchens. “Hoover Blankets” were newspapers that were being used to cover people like a blanket. “Hoover Hogs” were jack rabbits that were used for food, and “Hoover Wagons” were broken down cars that were pulled by mules. Some people who became homeless would ride on railroad cars, because they didn’t have money to travel. Some believe that more than 50,000 people were injured or killed while jumping trains. Many of these people traveled together and were called hobos.



<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Almost half of the children who were living in the United States at that time did not have enough food, shelter, or medical care. Many suffered diseases. By the 1930s, thousands of schools were operating on reduced hours or were closed down entirely. Some three million children had left school, and at least 200,000 took to riding the rails either with their parents or as orphans. African Americans, Native Americans, Mexican Americans and women were bitterly discriminated and the hardest hit during the Great Depression. They were looked at as the groups that could take jobs away from white men. The Great Depression also changed the family in several ways. Many couples delayed getting married, and divorce rates and birth rates dropped. Some men also abandoned their families. A 1940 poll revealed that 1.5 million married women had been abandoned by their husbands.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Severe drought and dust storms made the Great Depression even worse, because it dried out farmlands and forced families to leave their farms. On May 9, 1934, a dust storm carried about 350 million tons of dirt 2,000 miles eastward and dumped four million tons of prairie dirt in Chicago. The drought and dust killed tens of thousands of animals and some people. The board game Monopoly, which first became available in 1935, became popular because players could become rich during the playing of the game. The “Three Little Pigs“was seen as a symbol of the Great Depression, with the wolf representing the Depression and the three little pigs representing average citizens who eventually succeeded by working together. Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) became president in March 1933, and promised a “New Deal for the American people.”

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Video: <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">[|1929 Stock Market Crash]

<span style="color: #16c316; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">The Russian Revolution

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The Russian Revolution took place in 1917. This revolution actually took place in two separate "revolutions," the February Revolution and the October Revolution. The Russian Revolution replaced the existing system of autocratic rule by a tsar with the communist regime.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The revolution did not happen overnight. Discontent had been spreading and rising throughout Russia for many years prior to the revolution. One of the events which hastened the revolution was what is now known as "Bloody Sunday." This took place in 1905. The peasants of Russia, as well as the poor working class, were living in very bad conditions. They worked dangerous jobs, often went hungry, and felt that the tsar was doing nothing to help them. A priest helped organize a protest that would go to the tsar and issue requests for reforms that would help improve the lives of the people. These protesters were still loyal to the tsar, and believed that they could work with him rather than against him. They organized peacefully, and had already let it be known that they would be demonstrating. However, the soldiers protecting the tsar's palace opened fire on the protesters. Many people were killed, men, women, and children.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The tsar, Nicholas II, did a very poor job helping the people, and missed many opportunities to make reforms that could have helped prevent the revolution. He believed that the tsar should hold absolute power as given to him by God, and that the people would remain naturally loyal to him. However, a growing number of people wished to have a democratic government in which the common people would have representation and the power to improve their own lives.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The outbreak of the First World War further helped set the country on the path to revolution. Many people were against Russia entering the war, and many of their problems steadily grew worse. In February of 1917, the full-scale revolution finally broke out. The tsar was forced to abdicate, and a new government was set up. The Provisional Government was an extension of a governing body that had already been in place, called the Duma. However, the tsar had severely hindered its effectiveness. Now, it was fully in control.



<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">The Provisional Government was not supported by everyone, though. One of the popular political movements at the time was the Bolshevik party. This group was led by Vladimir Lenin. Because the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks couldn't work together, the country remained chaotic and unstable.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In October of that year, a second revolution took place, called the October Revolution. This time the Bolshevik party took over. The Bolsheviks had been against Russia's involvement in the First World War, and signed a treaty with Germany in 1918.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">There were still many people in Russia who did not support the Bolsheviks. Eventually two primary factions appeared, the "Reds," being the Bolsheviks, and the "Whites," consisting of many various anti-Bolshevik groups. This erupted into a civil war which lasted several years, but which the Bolsheviks eventually won. This resulted in the adoption of communism and the formation of the USSR.

<span style="color: #0fc40f; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">World War II

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In the 20th century there were two 'world wars'. Many countries were affected by the wars. The first war lasted from 1914 to 1918. Though it was fought mostly in Europe, people called it the First World War (World War 1). <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The Second World War (World War 2) lasted from 1939 to 1945. It was fought in Europe, in Russia, North Africa and in Asia. 60 million people died in World War 2. About 40 million were civilians. Children as well as adults were affected by the war. This site will tell you what the war was like for children, mainly in Britain but in other countries too.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">World War 2 was fought between two groups of countries. On one side were the Axis Powers, including Germany, Italy and Japan. On the other side were the Allies. They included Britain, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, India, the Soviet Union, China and the United States of America. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Germany was ruled by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hitler wanted Germany to control Europe. Japan wanted to control Asia and the Pacific. In 1937 Japan attacked China. In 1939 Germanyinvaded Poland. This is how World War 2 began. Some countries did not join the war, but stayed neutral (on neither side). Spain, Sweden and Switzerland were neutral countries. So was Ireland, though many Irish people helped the Allies.



<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Britain and France went to war with Germany in September 1939.They wanted to help Poland after it wasinvaded, but they were too late. Poland was occupied by the Nazis. By the summer of 1940 they had conquered Holland, Belgium, France, Denmark and Norway. Enemy planes dropped bombs on cities in Britain. Allied ships were sunk by submarines.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In July 1940, German planes started bombing British coastal towns, defences and ships in the English Channel in order to gain control of the skies in the South of England. By mid-September 1940, after many battles, Germany postponed their planned land invasion of Britain as the RAF effectively fought off the German Luftwaffe. This period is known as The Battle of Britain.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Commonwealth nations, such as Canada and Australia, helped Britain. In 1941 the Soviet Union (Russia) was attacked by Germany. In 1941 America also joined the war, after Japan attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Use the timeline to find the important events and battles of the war.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">By 1943 the Allies were winning. One reason was that Allied factories were building thousands of tanks, ships and planes. In 1944, a huge Allied army crossed from Britain to liberate (free) France. Then Allied armies invaded Germany. By May 1945 the war in Europe was over. <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The Pacific war went on until August 1945. There was fierce fighting on Pacific islands and big naval battles at sea. Finally, the Allies dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The damage was so terrible that Japan surrendered. World War 2 had ended.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In 1945 Allied troops freed prisoners from Nazi concentration camps. In these camps, millions of Jews and other prisoners had been killed or had died from hunger, disease and cruelty.This terrible war crime became known as the Holocaust. It's thought 6 million Jews were killed. Among the victims were many children. One young girl left a diary of her life in hiding, before she was captured. Her name was Anne Frank. She died, aged 15, in 1945 at the Bergen-Belsen prison camp.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; display: block; font-family: 'trebuchet ms',helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;"> Nationalism and Expansion in Europe

Imperialism in Africa and the Middle East

Imperialism in Asia and Latin America <span style="color: #0fc40f; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">Nationalism

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Nationalism is a belief system or political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a nation. There are two major perspectives on the origins and basis of nationalism, one is the primordialist perspective that describes nationalism as a reflection of the ancient and perceived evolutionary tendency of humans to organize into distinct grouping based on an affinity of birth; the other is the modernist perspective that describes nationalism as a recent phenomenon that requires the structural conditions of modern society, in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however, which leads to several different strands of nationalism. It can be a belief that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic, cultural, religious, or identity group, or that multinationality in a single state should necessarily comprise the right to express and exercise national identity even by minorities.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The adoption of national identity in terms of historical development, has commonly been the result of a response by an influential group or groups that is unsatisfied with traditional identities due to inconsistency between their defined social order and the experience of that social order by its members, resulting in a situation of anomie that nationalists seek to resolve. This anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. This development may be the result of internal structural issues or the result of resentment by an existing group or groups towards other communities, especially foreign powers that are or are deemed to be controlling them.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">National flags, national anthems, and other symbols of national identity are commonly considered highly important symbols of the national community. Deep emotions are aroused.



**<span style="color: #0fc40f; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">Rise of nationalism in Europe **

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Nationalism was an important factor in the development of Europe. In the 19th century, a wave of romantic nationalism swept the continent of Europe transforming the countries of the continent. Some new countries, such as Germany and Italy were formed by uniting smaller states with a common "national identity". Others, such as Romania, Greece, Poland and Bulgaria, were formed by winning their independence.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The French Revolution paved the way for the modern nation-state and also had a big part in the birth of nationalism. Across Europe radical intellectuals questioned the old monarchial order and encouraged the development of a popular nationalism committed to re-drawing the political map of the continent. By 1814 the days of multi-national empires were numbered. The French Revolution, by destroying the traditional structures of power in France and territories conquered by Napoleon, was the instrument for the political transformation of Europe. Revolutionary armies carried the slogan of "liberty, equality and brotherhood" and ideas of liberalism and national self-determinism. National awakening also grew out of an intellectual reaction to the Enlightenment that emphasized national identity and developed a romantic view of cultural self-expression through nationhood. The key exponent of the modern idea of the nation-state was the German G. W. Friedrich Hegel. He argued that a sense of nationality was the cement that held modern societies together in the age when dynastic and religious allegiance was in decline. In 1815, at the end of the Napoleonic wars, the major powers of Europe tried to restore the old dynastic system as far as possible, ignoring the principle of nationality in favour of "legitimism", the assertion of traditional claims to royal authority. With most of Europe's peoples still loyal to their local province or city, nationalism was confined to small groups of intellectuals and political radicals. Furthermore, political repression, symbolized by the Carlsbad Decrees published in Austria in 1819, pushed nationalist agitation underground.

<span style="color: #0fc40f; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">The French revolution and the idea of a nation

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The abstract notion of nationalism finally found its precision in the French revolution that erupted in 1789. The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collectiveidentity amongst the French people.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A centralized administrative system was put in place which abolished internal custom duties and introduced a uniform system of weights and measures. It also encouraged French as common language of the nation.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">When the news of these events reached the different corners of Europe, students and other members of educated middle class began setting up Jacobin clubs. Within no time, the conflagration spread abroad.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">But soon afterwards, with the rise of Napoleon, monarchy suffered severe damages which completely destroyed democracy in France. Easing the already flared fray, the Civil Code of 1804- usually known as the Napoleon Code- did away with all the privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. Transport and communication systems were improved.Business and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common rational currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Unfortunately, the highly anticipating ray of hope turned gray as the new administrative arrangement failed to go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

<span style="color: #0fc40f; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 1.5; text-align: center;">Imperialism

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cecil Rhodes and the Cape-Cairo railway project. Rhodes founded the De Beers Mining Company, owned theBritish South Africa Company and had his name given to what became the state of Rhodesia. He liked to "paint the map British red" and declared: "all of these stars ... these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets."

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Imperialism, as defined by the People of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of a country's power and influence through military force." It is often considered in a negative light, as merely the exploitation of native people in order to enrich a small handful. Lewis Samuel Feuer identifies two major subtypes of imperialism; the first is "regressive imperialism" identified with pure conquest, unequivocal exploitation, extermination or reductions of undesired peoples, and settlement of desired peoples into those territories, an example being Nazi Germany. The second type identified by Feuer is "progressive imperialism" that is founded upon a cosmopolitan view of humanity, that promotes the spread of civilization to allegedly "backward" societies to elevate living standards and culture in conquered territories, and allowance of a conquered people to assimilate into the imperial society, examples being the Roman Empire and British Empire.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Imperialism always involves the massive export of capital to foreign countries for the purpose of exploiting and dominating both their labor forces and their markets. Imperialism, the highest stage of capitalism, represents the stage at which a country's consumers cannot buy all the products that have been produced, and additional markets must be sought after. The dominant feature of imperialism is the repatriation of invested capital.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The term as such primarily has been applied to Western political and economic dominance in the 19th and 20th centuries. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organized with an imperial center and a periphery. According to the Marxist historian, Walter Rodney, imperialism meant capitalist expansion. It meant that European (and American and Japanese) capitalists were forced by the internal logic of their competitive system to seek abroad in less developed countries opportunities to control raw material, to find markets, and to find profitable fields of investment. It's generally accepted that modern day colonialism is an expression of imperialism and cannot exist without the latter. The extent to which "informal" imperialism with no formal colonies is properly described as such remains a controversial topic among historians.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 1.5;">The Age of Imperialism was a time period beginning around 1870 when modern, relatively developed nations were taking over less developed areas, colonizing them, or influencing them in order to expand their own power. Although imperialist practices have existed for thousands of years, the term "Age of Imperialism" generally refers to the activities of nations such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United States in the early 18th through the middle 20th centuries, e.g., the "The Great Game" in Persian lands, the "Scramble for Africa" and the "Open Door Policy" in China.

<span style="color: #0fc40f; display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt; text-align: center;">The scramble for Africa

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">The ideas of imperialism put forward by historians John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson during the 19th century. European imperialism were influential, and they rejected the notion that "imperialism" required formal, legal control by one government over another country. "In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. A key to the thought of Robinson and Gallagher is the idea of empire 'informally if possible and formally if necessary.'" Because of British Imperialism, the world's economy grew before World War I, making Britain a dominant financial force.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Europe’s expansion into territorial imperialism had much to do with the great economic benefit from collecting resources from colonies, in combination with assuming political control often by military means. Most notably, the “British exploited the political weakness of the Mughal state, and, while military activity was important at various times, the economic and administrative incorporation of local elites was also of crucial significance”. Although a substantial number of colonies had been designed or subject to provide economic profit (mostly through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries), Fieldhouse suggests that in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in places such as Africa and Asia, this idea is not necessarily valid:

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Modern empires were not artificially constructed economic machines. The second expansion of Europe was a complex historical process in which political, social and emotional forces in Europe and on the periphery were more influential than calculated imperialism. Individual colonies might serve an economic purpose; collectively no empire had any definable function, economic or otherwise. Empires represented only a particular phase in the ever-changing relationship of Europe with the rest of the world: analogies with industrial systems or investment in real estate were simply misleading. During this time, European merchants had the ability to “roam the high seas and appropriate surpluses from around the world (sometimes peaceably, sometimes violently) and to concentrate them in Europe.”

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">European expansion accelerated greatly in the 19th century. To obtain raw materials, Europe began importing them from other countries. Europeans sought raw materials such as dyes, cotton, vegetable oils, and metal ores from overseas. Europe was being transformed into the manufacturing center of the world. Communication became much more advanced during the European expansion. The invention of railroads and telegraphs made it easier to communicate with other countries. Railroads assisted in transporting goods and in supplying large armies.

<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Along with advancements in communication, Europe also continued to develop its military technology. European chemists made deadly explosives that could be used in combat, and with the advancement of machinery they were able to create lighter, cheaper guns. The guns were also much faster and more accurate. By the late 19th century (1880s) the machine gun had become an effective battlefield weapon. This technology gave European armies an advantage over their opponents, as armies in less developed countries were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields.